At the beginning of value-added tax was introduced. The central government budget was in surplus in that year, most of which was used to repay foreign debt.
However, the consumer boom was disrupted in mid , as a result of the bank crisis when 14 banks went bankrupt.
After several years of successful macroeconomic stabilization policies, low inflation and a stable currency, economists warned that the lack of fiscal changes and the expanding role of the state in the economy caused the decline in the late s and were preventing sustainable economic growth. The country emerged from the recession in the 4th quarter of and growth picked up in Economic growth in the s was stimulated by a credit boom led by newly privatized banks, capital investment, especially in road construction, a rebound in tourism and credit-driven consumer spending.
Inflation remained tame and the currency, the kuna, stable. In Croatia generated 5, billion kunas in total income from the shipbuilding sector, which employed 13, people. Unemployment reached its peak in late , but has since been steadily declining.
In , the nation's economy would officially recover to the amount of GDP it had in Unemployment continued falling, powered by growing industrial production and rising GDP, rather than only seasonal changes from tourism. Unemployment reached an all-time low in when the annual average rate was 8. Most economic indicators remained positive in this period except for the external debt as Croatian firms focused more on empowering the economy by taking loans from foreign resources.
The Croatian National Bank had to take steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks. Economic growth has been hurt by the global financial crisis.
However, in , the crisis gained momentum and the decline in GDP growth, at a slower pace, continued during In the GDP stagnated as the growth rate was zero. Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July as the 28th member state. The Croatian economy is heavily interdependent on other principal economies of Europe, and any negative trends in these larger EU economies also have a negative impact on Croatia.
Italy, Germany and Slovenia are Croatia's most important trade partners. The annual average unemployment rate in was In external debt rose by 2.
During the Croatian economy started with slow but upward economic growth, which continued during and conclusive at the end of the year seasonally adjusted was recorded at 3. In the first quarter of , Croatian GDP rose by 0. Economic activity also plunged in Q3 when GDP slid by an additional Preliminary data point to tourism-related expenditure already exceeding levels, which has been supportive of both employment and consumption.
At the same time, imports rose The coverage of imports by exports for the first nine months is Specifically, on the EU market, only a lower export result is recorded in relations with Sweden , Belgium and Luxembourg. Italy is again the main market for Croatian products, followed by Germany and Slovenia. Apart from the high contribution of crude oil that Ina sends to Hungary to the Mol refinery for processing, the export of artificial fertilizers from Petrokemija also has a significant contribution to growth.
For , the Commission revised downwards its projection for Croatia's economic growth to 5. Commission again confirmed that the volume of Croatia's GDP should reach its level during , while in the GDP will grow by 3.
The Commission warned that the key downside risks stem from Croatia's relatively low vaccination rates , which could lead to stricter containment measures, and continued delays of the earthquake-related reconstruction.
On the upside, potential entry into the Schengen area and euro adoption towards the end of the forecast period could benefit investment and trade. Maraska liqueur factory in Zadar. Tourism is a notable source of income during the summer and a major industry in Croatia. Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy of Croatia in terms of increased business volume observed in retail business, processing industry orders and summer seasonal employment. The industry is considered an export business, because it significantly reduces the country's external trade imbalance.
Length of a tourist stay in Croatia averages 4. The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic Sea coast. Opatija was the first holiday resort since the middle of the 19th century. By the s, it became one of the most significant European health resorts. Inland areas offer mountain resorts, agrotourism and spas. Zagreb is also a significant tourist destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts. Croatia has unpolluted marine areas reflected through numerous nature reserves and 99 Blue Flag beaches and 28 Blue Flag marinas.
It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts. Croatian agricultural sector subsists from exports of blue water fish , which in recent years experienced a tremendous surge in demand, mainly from Japan and South Korea. Croatia is a notable producer of organic foods and much of it is exported to the European Union. Croatian wines , olive oil and lavender are particularly sought after.
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like apple 93 thousand tons , triticale 62 thousand tons and olive 28 thousand tons.
The highlight of Croatia's recent infrastructure developments is its rapidly developed motorway network , largely built in the late s and especially in the s.
By January , Croatia had completed more than 1, kilometres miles of motorways, connecting Zagreb to most other regions and following various European routes and four Pan-European corridors. The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by several EuroTAP and EuroTest programs. Croatia has an extensive rail network spanning 2, kilometres 1, miles , including kilometres miles of electrified railways and kilometres miles of double track railways.
The busiest cargo seaport in Croatia is the Port of Rijeka and the busiest passenger ports are Split and Zadar. There are kilometres miles of crude oil pipelines in Croatia, connecting the Port of Rijeka oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka and Sisak, as well as several transhipment terminals. The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year. In , In , net total electrical power production in Croatia reached 12, GWh and Croatia imported Electricity: [].
Electricity — production by source: []. Crude oil: []. Natural gas: []. Overall Budget: [] Revenues:. Expenditure by ministries for []. The following table shows the main economic indicators for the period — according to the Croatian National Bank.
Distribution of family income — Gini index : Agricultural products: maize , wheat , sugar beet , milk , barley , soybeans , potatoes , pork , grapes , sunflower seed. Industries: chemicals and plastics , machine tools , fabricated metal, electronics , pig iron and rolled steel products, aluminum , paper , wood products , construction materials , textiles , shipbuilding , petroleum and petroleum refining , food and beverages, tourism.
Imports — commodities: crude petroleum , cars, refined petroleum, packaged medicines, electricity Media related to Economy of Croatia at Wikimedia Commons. World portal. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. National economy. Fiscal year. Private consumption: Inflation CPI. Population below poverty line. Gini coefficient. Human Development Index. Average net salary. Ease-of-doing-business rank. FDI stock. Current account. Gross external debt. Public debt.
Budget balance. HRK Credit rating. All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars. Main article: Industry of Croatia. Asphalt plant in Ivanovec. Since its first performance at the White House for President Calvin Coolidge in , the club has sung for numerous heads of state and world leaders. Bruce Montgomery , its best-known and longest-serving director, led the club from until The University of Pennsylvania Band has been a part of student life since By the s, however, Penn Band had begun moving away from the traditional corps style and is now a scramble band.
The first one hundred years of the organization's history was described in a book from Arcadia Publishing: Images of America:The University of Pennsylvania Band The Mask and Wig Club, founded in , is the oldest all-male musical comedy troupe in the country.
Bloomers comedy group, founded in , was the " Dating back to , The Christian Association a. The CA is the oldest religious organization at the university and is composed primarily of students from Mainline Protestant backgrounds.
After moving around several times it relocated to building at 36th and Locust Streets, which it built and owned now the ARCH Building , and occupied from until The CA ran several foreign missions including one of lasting import when in it financed University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine graduate, Josiah McCracken , MD, trip to China to investigate the viability of operating the medical department of the Canton Christian College now known as Lingnan University Guangzhou.
The following year, Dr. McCracken moved to China and renamed the department as "The University Medical School in Canton, China," and served as its president from the time of renaming through the date in when the CA ended its affiliation with the Canton Christian College.
Though Moses Levy, Penn's first Jewish student, enrolled in and first Jewish trustee was elected in and served through , organized Jewish life did not begin in earnest until start of 20th century. In addition Penn Hillel student and professional staff help facilitate the Rohr Jewish Learning Institute 's Sinai Scholars Society Academic Symposium, a prestigious event that brings together Jewish college students with noted Jewish academics for a day of in-depth discussion and debate at the university.
The Penn Newman Catholic Center the Newman Center was founded in and was the first Newman Center in the country with the mission of supporting students, faculty, and staff in their religious endeavors. The organization brings prominent Christian figures to campus, including Rev. Thomas "Tom" J. In addition to his duties as a Jesuit priest, Father Martin is an editor-at-large of the Jesuit magazine America , [] a New York Times Best Selling author, and frequent commentator on the life and teachings of Jesus and on Ignatian spirituality.
Father Martin is especially well known for his outreach to the LGBT community, which has drawn a strong backlash from parts of the Catholic Church, but has provided comfort to Penn students and other members of Roman Catholic community who wish to stay connected with their faith and identify as LGBQT. University of Pennsylvania funds via the Graduate and Professional Student Assembly or similar undergraduate organization a variety of official clubs focused on India including a number focused on students who are Hindu or Jain.
Chaplain Anton's mandate includes supporting and guiding the Penn Muslim community to foster further development of such community by creating a welcoming environment that provides Penn Muslim community opportunities to intellectually and spiritually engage with Islam. Penn's sports teams are nicknamed the Quakers , but the teams are often also referred to as The Red and Blue as reflected in the popular song sung after every athletic contest where the Penn Band or other musical groups are present.
In recent decades, they often have been league champions in football 14 times from to and basketball 22 times from to The first athletic team at Penn was the cricket team, which formed in and played regularly through , the year it lost its "grounds", and then only played intermittently until , the year it played its first intercollegiate game against Haverford College.
The rugby football team began to play against other colleges, most notably against College of New Jersey now Princeton University in using a combination of association football i. The first University of Pennsylvania cricket team reported to be the first cricket team in the United States comprised exclusively of Americans [] was organized in by a member of Philadelphia's prominent Wister family , William Rotch Wister class of for Bachelor of Arts and for Master of Arts.
On May 7, , Penn played its first intercollegiate game against Haverford College [] [] and then proceeded to play Haverford for three consecutive years until , when the Haverford faculty banned cricket away from their college grounds.
Starting in and through , Penn fielded a varsity eleven, which played a few matches each year against opponents that included Haverford College and Columbia College. In the s Penn's cricket team frequently toured Canada and the British Isles. Cricket had gained in popularity among the upper class from their travels abroad and cricket clubs sprung up all across the Eastern Seaboard even today Philadelphia still has three cricket clubs: the Philadelphia Cricket Club , the Merion Cricket Club and the Germantown Cricket Club.
Perhaps the university's most famous cricket player was George Patterson class of , who still holds the North American batting record and who went on to play for the professional Philadelphia Cricket Team. Following the First World War, cricket began to experience a serious decline as baseball became the preferred sport of the warmer months and Imperial Cricket Conference , Cricket's " Starting in , however, Penn once again fielded a cricket team, albeit club, that ended up being the first winner of a tournament for teams from the Ivies.
Rowing crew at Penn dates back to at least with the founding of the University Barge Club. The university currently hosts both heavyweight and lightweight men's teams and an open weight women's team, all of which compete as part of the Eastern Sprints League. Ellis Ward was Penn's first intercollegiate crew coach from through Red and Blue crews won 65 races, in about starts. Penn Rowing has produced a long list of famous coaches and Olympians. Kennedy, won the bronze medal for the United States at Olympics.
Sullivan Award for nation's best amateur athlete in , and Penn coach from to The outbreak of World War Two canceled the Olympics for which Burk was favored to win the gold medal. Other Penn Olympic athletes and or Penn coaches of such athletes include: a John Anthony Pescatore who competed in the Seoul Olympic Games for the United States as stroke of the men's coxed eight which earned a bronze medal [] and later competed at the Barcelona Olympic Games in the men's coxless pair , b Susan Francia winner of gold medals as part of the women's 8 oared boat at Olympics and Olympics , c Regina Salmons member of USA team , [] d Rusty Callow, e Harry Parker , f Ted Nash , [] and g John B.
Kelly Jr. Kelly Sr. Sullivan Award [] for being nation's best amateur athlete in , who was winner of a bronze medal at the Summer Olympics.
The Penn men's rugby football team is one of the oldest collegiate rugby teams in the United States. Indeed, Penn first fielded a team in mid s playing by rules much closer to the rugby union and Association Football code rules relative to American football rules, as such American football rules had not yet been invented []. Among its earliest games was a game against College of New Jersey which in changed its name to Princeton played in Philadelphia on Saturday, November 11, , which was less than two weeks before Princeton met on November 23, , with Harvard and Columbia to confirm that all their games would be played using the rugby union rules.
The rugby code influence was due, in part, to the fact that some of their students had been educated in English public schools. Among the prominent alumni to play in a 19th-century version of rugby rules that did not allow forward passes or center snaps was John Heisman , namesake of the Heisman Trophy and an graduate of the University of Pennsylvania Law School.
Heisman was instrumental in the first decade of the 20th century in changing the rules to more closely relate to the present rules of American football. In , Rugby per Rugby Union code was reintroduced to Penn [] as Penn last played per Rugby Union Code in as Penn played rugby per a number of different rugby football rulebooks and codes from through s [] by Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Frank Nicholson rugby union University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine class of , [] who in had captained the Australian national rugby team in its match against England.
Penn played per rugby union code rules at least through , contemporaneously with Penn playing American gridiron football. Evidence of such may be found in an October 22, , Daily Pennsylvanian article quoted below and a yearbook photo [] that rugby per rugby union code was played.
Such is the devotion to English rugby football on the part of University of Pennsylvania's students from New Zealand , Australia , and England that they meet on Franklin Field at 7 o'clock every morning and practice the game. The varsity track and football squads monopolize the field to such an extent that the early hours of the morning are the only ones during which the rugby enthusiasts can play. Any time except Friday, Saturday and Sunday, a squad of 25 men may be seen running through the hardest kind of practice after which they may divide into two teams and play a hard game.
Once a week, captain CC Walton, '11 , dental, who hails from New Zealand, gives the enthusiastic players a blackboard talk in which he explains the intricacies of the game in detail. Though Penn played rugby per rugby union rules from through , [] there is no indication that Penn had a rugby team from through when Penn men's rugby became permanent due to leadership of Harry "Joe" Edwin Reagan III [] Penn's College class of and Penn Law class of , who also went onto help create and incorporate in and was Treasurer in of USA Rugby and Oreste P.
Penn women's rugby team is coached, as of , by a Adam Dick, [] a level certified coach with over 15 years of rugby coaching experience including being the first coach of the first women's rugby team at the University of Arizona and who was a four-year starter at University of Arizona men's first XV rugby team and b Philly women's player Kate Hallinan. Penn's men's rugby team plays in the Ivy Rugby Conference [] and have finished as runners-up in both 15s and 7s in the Conference and won the Ivy Rugby Tournament in In their inaugural year of participation, the Penn men's rugby team won the Shield Competition, beating local Big Five rival, Temple University , 17—12 in the final.
Penn men's rugby, as of , [] is coached by Tiger Bax, [] a former professional rugby player hailing from Cape Town, South Africa , whose playing experience includes stints in the Super Rugby competition with the Stormers 15s and Mighty Mohicans 7s , as well as with the Gallagher Premiership Rugby side, Saracens [] and whose coaching experience includes three successful years as coach at Valley Rugby Football Club in Hong Kong ; and Tyler May, from Cherry Hill, New Jersey , who played rugby at Pennsylvania State University where he was a first XV player for three years.
Penn's graduate and professional schools also fielded rugby teams. Representative from Pennsylvania's 17th congressional district. Penn first fielded a football team against Princeton at the Germantown Cricket Club in Philadelphia on November 11, Penn football made many contributions to the sport in its early days. During the s, Penn's famed coach and alumnus George Washington Woodruff introduced the quarterback kick, a forerunner of the forward pass , as well as the place-kick from scrimmage and the delayed pass.
In , , and , Penn was generally regarded as the national champion of collegiate football. While primarily a guard , he also ran, punted , kicked off, and drop-kicked extra points. The achievements of two of Penn's other outstanding players from that era, John Heisman, a Law School alumnus, and John Outland , a Penn Med alumnus, are remembered each year with the presentation of the Heisman Trophy to the most outstanding college football player of the year, and the Outland Trophy to the most outstanding college football interior lineman of the year.
Also, each year the Bednarik Award is given to college football's best defensive player. All three standouts were subsequently elected to the College Football Hall of Fame , as was their coach, George Munger a star running back at Penn in the early s. Bednarik went on to play for 12 years with the Philadelphia Eagles , and was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Penn's game against University of California at Berkeley on September 29, in front of a crowd of 60, at Franklin Field , was first college football game to be broadcast in color.
Penn basketball is steeped in tradition. Dartmouth twice finished second in the tournament in the s, but that was before the beginning of formal League play. At least 43 different Penn alumni have earned 81 Olympic medals 26 gold. University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine class of who won the silver medal in the shot put and a bronze medal for the hammer throw; [] [] [] 3 John Walter Tewksbury Penn Dental School class of who won five 'medals' gold in the meter dash and meter hurdles, silver in the 60 meter dash and meter dash, and a bronze in the meter hurdles ; [] 4 Irving Baxter Penn Law class of who won five "medals" gold in both the men's high jump and men's pole vault and silver in all three of the standing jumps long, triple, and high ; [] [] 5 Meredith Colket College Class of BS , Penn Law class of who won the silver 'medal' in the pole vault , [] 6 Truxton Hare Penn Law class of who won the silver 'medal' in the hammer throw [] and at Summer Olympics held in St.
Louis, Missouri , won i bronze medal in the all-around discipline which consisted of yard run, shot put, high jump, yard walk, hammer throw, pole vault, yard hurdles, long jump and one mile run , and ii gold medal as part of United States tug of war team , [] and 7 George Orton University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Arts and Sciences class of MA and class of Ph.
In the Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, Japan, in summer of , nine Penn students and alumni played in six different sports from six different countries. Franklin Field is where the Quakers play football, field hockey , lacrosse , sprint football and track and field and formerly baseball, soccer, and rugby. It is the oldest stadium still operating for football games and was the first stadium to sport two tiers. It hosted the first commercially televised football game, was once the home field of the Philadelphia Eagles, and was the site of 18 Army—Navy games between and Today it is also used by Penn students for recreation such as intramural and club sports, including touch football and cricket.
Franklin Field hosts the annual collegiate track and field event "the Penn Relays. Penn's home court, the Palestra , is an arena used for men's and women's basketball teams, volleyball teams, wrestling team, and Philadelphia Big Five basketball, as well as high school sporting events.
Penn's River Fields hosts a number of athletic fields including the Rhodes Soccer Stadium for both women's and men's soccer, which includes elevated stands for spectators, a degree rotating scoreboard, and the Rapaport Family Suite , the Ellen Vagelos C'90 Field Hockey Field with special artificial turf , and Irving "Moon" Mondschein Throwing Complex for javelin , shot put , discus , and Hammer throw.
Twenty-nine of the boycotting nations participated in the Boycott Games. Francis Hopkinson , signed the Declaration of Independence and designed the first official American flag. George Clymer , Founding Father ; early advocate for complete independence from Britain.
William Henry Harrison , 9th president of the United States. Donald Trump , 45th president of the United States. Martha Hughes Cannon , first female state senator elected in the United States. Ed Rendell , 45th governor of Pennsylvania ; 96th mayor of Philadelphia.
Jon Huntsman Jr. Arlen Specter , former U. William Brennan Jr. Kwame Nkrumah , first president of Ghana , and previously first prime minister of Ghana. Alassane Ouattara , President of Cote de Ivoire since Drew Gilpin Faust , 28th president of Harvard University.
William Wrigley, Jr. Wrigley Jr. Ezra Pound , poet and critic; a major figure in the early modernist poetry movement. Warren Buffett , successful investor [] []. Stanley B. Prusiner , neurologist and biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Christian B. Anfinsen , biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Pei , Pritzker Prize -winning architect. Penn has produced many alumni that have distinguished themselves in the sciences, academia, politics, business, military, arts, and media.
Some eleven heads of state or government have attended or graduated from Penn, including former president Donald Trump ; [] former president William Henry Harrison , who attended the medical school for less than a semester; [] former prime minister of the Philippines Cesar Virata ; the first president of Nigeria , Nnamdi Azikiwe ; the first president of Ghana , Kwame Nkrumah ; and the current president of Ivory Coast , Alassane Ouattara. Other notable politicians who hold a degree from Penn include India's former minister of state for finance Jayant Sinha , [] [ better source needed ] former ambassador and Utah governor Jon Huntsman, Jr.
The university's presence in the judiciary in and outside of the United States is also notable. Brennan , Owen J. Roberts and James Wilson ; Supreme Court justices of foreign states e.
Penn is also a top feeder school for careers in finance and investment banking on Wall Street [] and its alumni have a strong presence in financial and economic life. Indeed, Penn alumni include 64 living billionaires, 28 of whom are undergraduate alumni billionaires as Penn has the second highest number of undergrad billionaire alumni with only Harvard [with only one more but Penn undergraduate alumni billionaires have accumulated over 65 billion more in wealth than Harvard's ], [] [33] Penn has educated several governors of central banks including Dawne Williams St.
Penn alumni who are founders of technology companies include Ralph J. Among other distinguished alumni are the current or past presidents of over one hundred universities including Harvard University Drew Gilpin Faust , Harvard's first female president , Cornell University Martha E. Within the ranks of Penn's most historic graduates are also eight signers of the Declaration of Independence [25] [26] and seven signers of the United States Constitution [27] and 24 members of the Continental Congress.
As of , there have been 24 Nobel Laureates affiliated see List of Nobel laureates by university affiliation , with the University of Pennsylvania, [] [] of whom four are current faculty members and eight are alumni.
The New York region of the university maintains an office in the Penn Club. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Private research university. This article is about the private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia. For the public research university with campuses across Pennsylvania, see Pennsylvania State University. This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Its current readable prose size is kilobytes.
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Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania facing northwest towards front entrance. Nitzsche, []. See also: The Daily Pennsylvanian. Main article: Penn Quakers. Main article: Penn Quakers football. Main article: Penn Quakers men's basketball. Main article: List of University of Pennsylvania people. See also: List of Nobel laureates affiliated with the University of Pennsylvania.
Philadelphia portal Pennsylvania portal. When Franklin's institution was established, it inhabited a schoolhouse built on November 14, , for another school, which never came to practical fruition. After initially designating as its founding date, Penn later considered to be its founding date for more than a century, including alumni observing a centennial celebration in The primary purpose of the conference was to standardize American academic regalia, which was accomplished through the adoption of the Intercollegiate Code on Academic Costume.
This formalized protocol included a provision that henceforth academic processions would place visiting dignitaries and other officials in the order of their institution's founding dates. The following year, Penn's The Alumni Register magazine, published by the General Alumni Society, began a campaign to retroactively revise the University's founding date to , to become older than Princeton, which had been chartered in Three years later in , Penn's board of trustees acceded to this alumni initiative and officially changed its founding date from to , affecting its rank in academic processions as well as the informal bragging rights that come with the age-based hierarchy in academia generally.
See "Building Penn's Brand" for more details on why Penn did this. However, Princeton has not done so, and a Princeton historian says that "the facts do not warrant" such an interpretation.
Other American universities that began as a colonial-era, early version of secondary schools such as St. John's College founded as "King William's School" in and the University of Delaware founded as "the Free Academy" in choose to march based upon the date they became institutions of higher learning. Penn History Professor Edgar Potts Cheyney was a member of the Penn class of who played a leading role in the alumni campaign to change the university's formal founding date.
According to Cheyney's later history of the event, the university did indeed consider its founding date to be for almost a century. However, it was changed with good reason, and primarily due to a publication about the university issued by the U. Commissioner of Education written by Francis Newton Thorpe, a fellow alumnus, and colleague in the Penn history department. The year is the date of the establishment of the first educational trust that the University had taken upon itself.
Cheyney states further that "it might be considered a lawyer's date; it is a familiar legal practice in considering the date of any institution to seek out the oldest trust it administers". He also points out that Harvard's founding date is also the year in which the Massachusetts General Court state legislature resolved to establish a fund in a year's time for a "School or College". As well, Princeton claims its founding date as , the date of its first charter.
However, the exact words of the charter are unknown, the number and names of the trustees in the charter are unknown, and no known original is extant.
Except for Columbia University, the majority of the American Colonial Colleges do not have clear-cut dates of foundation. Archived from the original on April 28, Retrieved July 20, University Archives and Records Center. Archived from the original on August 22, Retrieved January 31, June 3, Archived from the original on June 3, University of Pennsylvania: Which is the Older Institution?
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Times Higher Education. Retrieved March 14, Archived from the original on January 27, Retrieved December 7, Retrieved December 1, March 18, Retrieved February 13, Retrieved August 12, Gernhardt Ph. Retrieved July 23, Archived from the original on August 7, January Penn University Archives and Records Center. Murphy, Our Facility's Namesake". National Archives at Boston.
August 15, Retrieved June 24, Archived from the original on November 20, Retrieved January 25, Princeton University. Archived from the original on August 5, Retrieved May 16, Archived from the original on April 3, Archived from the original on November 5, Archived from the original on November 17, Archived from the original on May 17, Archived from the original on January 22, Archived PDF from the original on January 16, Archived PDF from the original on October 28, Philadelphia: George W.
January 24, Retrieved May 31, Archived from the original on January 2, Retrieved December 9, ISBN Retrieved November 24, Archived from the original on April 22, Retrieved May 8, McCarty and Davis. This was the first designation of an institution in the United States as a University; e On September 22, , an act was passed naming the University the University of the State of Pennsylvania University of Pennsylvania University Archives.
Archived from the original on November 25, History of the University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 46— Archived from the original on May 24, Cheyney was a Penn professor and alumnus from the class of who advocated the change in Penn's founding date in to appear older than both Princeton and Columbia.
The explanation, "It will have been noted that is the date of the creation of the earliest of the many educational trusts the University has taken upon itself," is Professor Cheyney's justification pp. Archived from the original on July 19, Retrieved August 24, World Digital Library. Archived from the original on January 1, Retrieved February 14, Archived from the original on July 11, Retrieved June 1, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society.
ISSN JSTOR United States Senate. Archived from the original on June 16, Retrieved May 30, Worthington C. Ford, Gaillard Hunt, John C. Fitzpatrick, and Roscoe R. Early American Literature. George Washington Corner ed. The autobiography of Benjamin Rush; his Travels through life together with his Commonplace book for — Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Archived from the original on June 10, Retrieved April 8, Retrieved August 18, See Wilson, J.
New York: D. Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania Minute Books —; — Elmo's Club" with male and female members. See "St. Elmo Club". Elmo Club. Archived from the original on May 26, Elmo ". Retrieved April 7, Budd — who received his A.
Retrieved May 12, Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Archived from the original on February 19, Retrieved March 16, Archived PDF from the original on March 2, Retrieved April 26, Philadelphia: International Printing Company.
Retrieved April 5, — via The Internet Archive. Penn Today. Retrieved March 11, Spring Chemical Heritage Magazine. Collier's New Encyclopedia. New York: P. Retrieved February 28, Retrieved March 15, Retrieved December 24, Archived from the original on March 2, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Centre For Public Impact. September 2, Retrieved April 24, Archived from the original on February 18, Retrieved March 1, Archived from the original on February 10, Retrieved August 25, Rutman; University of Pennsylvania August In , the Kansas Pacific Railway started building the Hannibal Bridge , a swing bridge across the Missouri River between Kansas City, Missouri and Kansas City, Kansas which connected railroads on both sides of the Missouri while still allowing passage of paddle steamers on the river.
After completion, this became another major east—west railroad. To speed completion of the Kansas Pacific Railroad to Denver, construction started east from Denver in March to meet the railroad coming west from Kansas city.
Denver was now firmly on track to becoming the largest city and the future capital of Colorado. The original transcontinental railroad route did not pass through the two biggest cities in the so-called Great American Desert — Denver, Colorado , and Salt Lake City, Utah.
Feeder railroad lines were soon built to service these two and other cities and states along the route. Modern-day Interstate 80 roughly follows the path of the railroad from Sacramento across modern day California, Nevada, Wyoming and Nebraska, with a few exceptions.
Most significantly, the two routes are different between Wells, Nevada and Echo, Utah. The railroad was originally routed along the north shore, and later with the Lucin Cutoff directly across the center of the Great Salt Lake, passing through the city of Ogden instead of Salt Lake City. The railroad crosses the Wasatch Mountains via a much gentler grade through Weber Canyon.
Most of the other deviations are in mountainous areas where interstate highways allow for grades up to six-percent grades, which allows them to go many places the railroads had to go around, since their goal was to hold their grades to less than two percent.
Most of the capital investment needed to build the railroad was generated by selling government-guaranteed bonds granted per mile of completed track to interested investors. The Federal donation of right-of-way saved money and time as it did not have to be purchased from others. The financial incentives and bonds would hopefully cover most of the initial capital investment needed to build the railroad. The bonds would be paid back by the sale of government-granted land, as well as prospective passenger and freight income.
Most of the engineers and surveyors who figured out how and where to build the railroad on the Union Pacific were engineering college trained. Many of Union Pacific engineers and surveyors were Union Army veterans including two generals who had learned their railroad trade keeping the trains running and tracks maintained during the U. Civil War. After securing the finances and selecting the engineering team, the next step was to hire the key personnel and prospective supervisors. Nearly all key workers and supervisors were hired because they had previous railroad on-the-job training, knew what needed to be done and how to direct workers to get it done.
After the key personnel were hired, the semi-skilled jobs could be filled if there was available labor. The engineering team's main job was to tell the workers where to go, what to do, how to do it, and provide the construction material they would need to get it done.
Survey teams were put out to produce detailed contour maps of the options on the different routes. The engineering team looked at the available surveys and chose what was the "best" route. Survey teams under the direction of the engineers closely led the work crews and marked where and by how much hills would have to be cut and depressions filled or bridged. Coordinators made sure that construction and other supplies were provided when and where needed, and additional supplies were ordered as the railroad construction consumed the supplies.
Specialized bridging, explosive and tunneling teams were assigned to their specialized jobs. Some jobs like explosive work, tunneling, bridging, heavy cuts or fills were known to take longer than others, so the specialized teams were sent out ahead by wagon trains with the supplies and men to get these jobs done by the time the regular track-laying crews arrived. Finance officers made sure the supplies were paid for and men paid for their work.
An army of men had to be coordinated and a seemingly never-ending chain of supplies had to be provided. The Central Pacific road crew set a track-laying record by laying 10 mi 16 km of track in a single day, commemorating the event with a signpost beside the track for passing trains to see. In addition to the track-laying crews, other crews were busy setting up stations with provisions for loading fuel, water and often also mail, passengers and freight.
Personnel had to be hired to run these stations. Maintenance depots had to be built to keep all of the equipment repaired and operational. Telegraph operators had to be hired to man each station to keep track of where the trains were so that trains could run in each direction on the available single track without interference or accidents. Sidings had to be built to allow trains to pass. Provision had to be made to store and continually pay for coal or wood needed to run the steam locomotives.
Water towers had to be built for refilling the water tanks on the engines, and provision made to keep them full. The majority of the Union Pacific track across the Nebraska and Wyoming territories was built by veterans of the Union and Confederate armies, as well as many recent immigrants. Brigham Young , President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , landed contracts with the Union Pacific that offered jobs for around 2, members of the church with the hope that the railroad would support commerce in Utah.
Church members built most of the road through Utah. The Union Pacific train carrying him to the final spike ceremony was held up by a strike by unpaid workers in Piedmont, Wyoming until he paid them for their work.
Representatives of Brigham Young had less success, and failed in court to force him to honor the contract. The manual labor to build the Central Pacific's roadbed, bridges and tunnels was done primarily by many thousands of emigrant workers from China under the direction of skilled non-Chinese supervisors.
The Chinese were commonly referred to at the time as " Celestials " and China as the "Celestial Kingdom. The construction work involved an immense amount of manual labor. Initially, Central Pacific had a hard time hiring and keeping unskilled workers on its line, as many would leave for the prospect of far more lucrative gold or silver mining options elsewhere.
Despite the concerns expressed by Charles Crocker , one of the "big four" and a general contractor, that the Chinese were too small in stature [87] and lacking previous experience with railroad work, they decided to try them anyway. Most of these Chinese workers were represented by a Chinese "boss" who translated, collected salaries for his crew, kept discipline and relayed orders from an American general supervisor. Most Chinese workers spoke only rudimentary or no English, and the supervisors typically only learned rudimentary Chinese.
Many more workers were imported from the Guangdong Province of China, which at the time, beside great poverty, suffered from the violence of the Taiping Rebellion. Most Chinese workers were planning on returning with their newfound "wealth" when the work was completed. Most of the men received between one and three dollars per day, the same as unskilled white workers; but the workers imported directly from China sometimes received less.
A snapshot of workers in late showed about 3, Chinese and 1, white workers employed on the railroad. Nearly all of the white workers were in supervisory or skilled craft positions and made more money than the Chinese. Once the Central Pacific was out of the Sierras and the Carson Range, progress sped up considerably as the railroad bed could be built over nearly flat ground.
In those days, the Central Pacific once did a section of 10 miles 16 km of track in one day as a "demonstration" of what they could do on flat ground like most of the Union Pacific had in Wyoming and Nebraska.
The track laying was divided up into various parts. In advance of the track layers, surveyors consulting with engineers determined where the track would go.
Workers then built and prepared the roadbed, dug or blasted through hills, filled in washes, built trestles, bridges or culverts across streams or valleys, made tunnels if needed, and laid the ties. The actual track-laying gang would then lay rails on the previously laid ties positioned on the roadbed, drive the spikes, and bolt the fishplate bars to each rail. At the same time, another gang would distribute telegraph poles and wire along the grade, while the cooks prepared dinner and the clerks busied themselves with accounts, records, using the telegraph line to relay requests for more materials and supplies or communicate with supervisors.
Usually the workers lived in camps built near their work site. Supplies were ordered by the engineers and hauled by rail, possibly then to be loaded on wagons if they were needed ahead of the railhead. Camps were moved when the railhead moved a significant distance. Later, as the railroad started moving long distances every few days, some railroad cars had bunkhouses built in them that moved with the workers—the Union Pacific had used this technique since Carts pulled by mules, and horses were about the only labor-saving devices available then.
Lumber and ties were usually provided by independent contractors who cut, hauled and sawed the timber as required. Tunnels were blasted through hard rock by drilling holes in the rock face by hand and filling them with black powder. Sometimes cracks were found which could be filled with powder and blasted loose. The loosened rock would be collected and hauled out of the tunnel for use in a fill area or as roadbed, or else dumped over the side as waste.
A foot or so advance on a tunnel face was a typical day's work. Some tunnels took almost a year to finish and the Summit Tunnel, the longest, took almost two years. In the final days of working in the Sierras, the recently invented nitroglycerin explosive was introduced and used on the last tunnels including Summit Tunnel. Supply trains carried all the necessary material for the construction up to the railhead, with mule or horse-drawn wagons carrying it the rest of the ways if required.
Ties were typically unloaded from horse-drawn or mule-drawn wagons and then placed on the track ballast and leveled to get ready for the rails. Rails, which weighed the most, were often kicked off the flatcars and carried by gangs of men on each side of the rail to where needed. The rails just in front of the rail car would be placed first, measured for the correct gauge with gauge sticks and then nailed down on the ties with spike mauls. The fishplates connecting the ends of the rails would be bolted on and then the car pushed by hand to the end of the rail and rail installation repeated.
Track ballast was put between the ties as they progressed. Where a proper railbed had already been prepared, the work progressed rapidly. Constantly needed supplies included "food, water, ties, rails, spikes, fishplates, nuts and bolts, track ballast, telegraph poles, wire, firewood or coal on the Union Pacific and water for the steam train locomotives, etc.
Since juggling railroad cars took time on flat ground, where wagon transport was easier, the rail cars would be brought to the end of the line by steam locomotive, unloaded, and the flat car returned immediately to a siding for another loaded car of either ballast or rails. Temporary sidings were often installed where it could be easily done to expedite getting needed supplies to the railhead.
The railroad tracks, spikes, telegraph wire, locomotives, railroad cars, supplies etc. Some freight was put on Clipper ships which could do the trip in about days. Some passengers and high-priority freight were shipped over the newly completed as of Panama Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama. Using paddle steamers to and from Panama, this shortcut could be traveled in as little as 40 days.
Supplies were normally offloaded at the Sacramento, California , docks where the railroad started. After great initial progress along the Sacramento Valley, construction was slowed, first by the foothills of the Sierra Nevada , then by cutting a railroad bed up the mountains themselves. As they progressed higher in the mountains, winter snowstorms and a shortage of reliable labor compounded the problems.
On January 7, , a want ad for 5, laborers was placed in the Sacramento Union. Emigrants from poverty stricken regions of China, many of which suffered from the strife of the Taiping Rebellion , seemed to be more willing to tolerate the living and working conditions on the railroad construction, and progress on the railroad continued.
The increasing necessity for tunneling as they proceeded up the mountains then began to slow progress of the line yet again. The first step of construction was to survey the route and determine the locations where large excavations, tunnels and bridges would be needed. Crews could then start work in advance of the railroad reaching these locations. Supplies and workers were brought up to the work locations by wagon teams and work on several different sections proceeded simultaneously.
One advantage of working on tunnels in winter was that tunnel work could often proceed since the work was nearly all "inside". Unfortunately, living quarters would have to be built outside and getting new supplies was difficult. Working and living in winter in the presence of snow slides and avalanches caused some deaths.
To carve a tunnel, one worker held a rock drill on the granite face while one to two other workers swung eighteen-pound sledgehammers to sequentially hit the drill which slowly advanced into the rock. Once the hole was about 10 inches 25 cm deep, it would be filled with black powder, a fuse set and then ignited from a safe distance.
Nitroglycerin, which had been invented less than two decades before the construction of the first transcontinental railroad, was used in relatively large quantities during its construction. This was especially true on the Central Pacific Railroad, which owned its own nitroglycerin plant to ensure it had a steady supply of the volatile explosive. Chinese laborers were also crucial in the construction of 15 tunnels along the railroad's line through the Sierra Nevada mountains.
These were about 32 feet 10 m high and 16 feet 5 m wide. At first hand-powered derricks were used to help remove loose rocks up the vertical shafts. These derricks were later replaced with steam hoists as work progressed. By using vertical shafts, four faces of the tunnel could be worked at the same time, two in the middle and one at each end.
The average daily progress in some tunnels was only 0. Wilder, a Central Pacific-Southern Pacific employee, commented that "The Chinese were as steady, hard-working a set of men as could be found. With the exception of a few whites at the west end of Tunnel No.
A single foreman often Irish with a gang of 30 to 40 Chinese men generally constituted the force at work at each end of a tunnel; of these, 12 to 15 men worked on the heading, and the rest on the bottom, removing blasted material. When a gang was small or the men were needed elsewhere, the bottoms were worked with fewer men or stopped so as to keep the headings going.
Under the direction of construction superintendent James Harvey Strobridge, [98] Central Pacific tracklaying crews set a record with 10 miles 56 feet Horace Hamilton Minkler, track foreman for the Central Pacific, laid the last rail and tie before the Last Spike was driven. The sheds were built with two sides and a steep peaked roof, mostly of locally cut hewn timber and round logs.
Snow galleries had one side and a roof that sloped upward until it met the mountainside, thus permitting avalanches to slide over the galleries, some of which extended up the mountainside as much as feet 61 m.
Masonry walls such as the "Chinese Walls" at Donner Summit were built across canyons to prevent avalanches from striking the side of the vulnerable wooden construction. The major investor in the Union Pacific was Thomas Clark Durant, [] who had made his stake money by smuggling Confederate cotton with the aid of Grenville M. Durant chose routes that would favor places where he held land, and he announced connections to other lines at times that suited his share dealings.
Durant hired Dodge as chief engineer and Jack Casement as construction boss. In the East, the progress started in Omaha, Nebraska, by the Union Pacific Railroad which initially proceeded very quickly because of the open terrain of the Great Plains. This changed, however, as the work entered Indian-held lands, as the railroad was a violation of Native American treaties with the United States. War parties began to raid the moving labor camps that followed the progress of the line.
Union Pacific responded by increasing security and hiring marksmen to kill American Bison , which were both a physical threat to trains and the primary food source for many of the Plains Indians. The Native Americans then began killing laborers when they realized that the so-called "Iron Horse" threatened their existence. Security measures were further strengthened, and progress on the railroad continued.
In , he wrote to Gen. Ulysses S. Congress finally took action, outlawing the killing of any birds or animals in Yellowstone National Park, where the only surviving buffalo herd could be protected. Conservationists established more wildlife preserves, and the species slowly rebounded. Today, there are more than , bison in North America. Army in , he acknowledged that the Native Americans were scuttled to reservations with no compensation beyond the promise of religious instruction and basic supplies of food and clothing—promises, he wrote, which were never fulfilled.
Could any one expect less? Then, why wonder at Indian difficulties? Thrusting westward, the last two rails were laid by Irishmen;. Thrusting eastward, the last two rails were laid by the Chinese. It was at Promontory Summit on May 10, , that the two engines met. Leland Stanford drove The Last Spike or golden spike that joined the rails of the transcontinental railroad. When the last spike was driven, the rail network was not yet connected to the Atlantic or Pacific but merely connected Omaha to Sacramento.
To get from Sacramento to the Pacific, the Central Pacific purchased in the struggling Western Pacific Railroad unrelated to the railroad of the same name that would later parallel its route and in February resumed construction on it, which had halted in October because of funding troubles. On September 6, , the first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad's original western terminus on the east side of San Francisco Bay at the Alameda Terminal , where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco.
On November 8, , the Central Pacific finally completed the rail connection to its western terminus at Oakland, California , also on the East Bay , where freight and passengers completed their transcontinental link to San Francisco by ferry. The Western Pacific was originally chartered to go to San Jose , but the Central Pacific decided to build along the East Bay instead, as going from San Jose up the Peninsula to San Francisco itself would have brought it into conflict with competing interests.
The railroad entered Alameda and Oakland from the south, roughly paralleling what would later become U. Route 50 and later still Interstates 5 , , and A more direct route was obtained with the purchase of the California Pacific Railroad , crossing the Sacramento River and proceeding southwest through Davis to Benicia , where it crossed the Carquinez Strait by means of an enormous train ferry , then followed the shores of the San Pablo and San Francisco bays to Richmond and the Port of Oakland paralleling U.
Route 40 which ultimately became Interstate In , a rail bridge across the Carquinez replaced the Benicia ferries. Very early on, the Central Pacific learned that it would have trouble maintaining an open track in winter across the Sierras.
At first they tried plowing the road with special snowplows mounted on their steam engines. When this was only partially successful, an extensive process of building snow sheds over some of the track was instituted to protect it from deep snows and avalanches.
These eventually succeeded at keeping the tracks clear for all but a few days of the year. Both railroads soon instituted extensive upgrade projects to build better bridges, viaducts and dugways as well as install heavier duty rails, stronger ties, better road beds etc. The original track had often been laid as fast as possible with only secondary attention to maintenance and durability. The primary incentive had been getting the subsidies, which meant that upgrades of all kinds were routinely required in the following years.
The cost of making these upgrades was relatively small, however, once the railroad was operating. Once the railroad was complete supplies could be moved from distant factories directly to the construction site by rail. Several years after the end of the Civil War, the competing railroads coming from Missouri finally realized their initial strategic advantage and a building boom ensued.
In July , the Hannibal and St. Kansas City's head start in connecting to a true transcontinental railroad contributed to it rather than Omaha becoming the dominant rail center west of Chicago. On June 4, , an express train called the Transcontinental Express arrived in San Francisco via the first transcontinental railroad only 83 hours and 39 minutes after it had left New York City. Only ten years before, the same journey would have taken months over land or weeks on ship, possibly all the way around South America.
Supreme Court to divest it because of monopoly concerns. The two railroads would once again unite in when the Southern Pacific was sold to the Union Pacific. Having been bypassed with the completion of the Lucin Cutoff in , the Promontory Summit rails were pulled up in to be recycled for the World War II effort.
This process began with a ceremonial "undriving" at the Last Spike location. The scandal hit epic proportions in the United States presidential election , which saw the re-election of Ulysses S. Grant and became the biggest scandal of the Gilded Age. It would not be resolved until the death of the congressman who was supposed to have reined in its excesses but instead wound up profiting from it.
The process mired down Union Pacific work. Lincoln asked Massachusetts Congressman Oakes Ames , who was on the railroad committee, to clean things up and get the railroad moving.
Ames got his brother Oliver Ames Jr. Ames then in turn gave stock options to other politicians while at the same time continuing the lucrative overcharges. The scandal broke in when the New York Sun published correspondence detailing the scheme between Henry S. McComb and Ames. In the ensuing Congressional investigation, it was recommended that Ames be expelled from Congress, but this was reduced to a censure and Ames died within three months.
Durant later left the Union Pacific and a new rail baron, Jay Gould , became the dominant stockholder. As a result of the Panic of , Gould was able to pick up bargains, among them the control of the Union Pacific Railroad and Western Union. Visible remains of the historic line are still easily located—hundreds of miles are still in service today, especially through the Sierra Nevada Mountains and canyons in Utah and Wyoming.
While the original rail has long since been replaced because of age and wear, and the roadbed upgraded and repaired, the lines generally run on top of the original, handmade grade. Vista points on Interstate 80 through California's Truckee Canyon provide a panoramic view of many miles of the original Central Pacific line and of the snow sheds which made winter train travel safe and practical. In areas where the original line has been bypassed and abandoned, primarily because of the Lucin Cutoff re-route in Utah, the original road grade is still obvious, as are numerous cuts and fills, especially the Big Fill a few miles east of Promontory.
The sweeping curve which connected to the east end of the Big Fill now passes a Thiokol rocket research and development facility. The engines are fired up periodically by the National Park Service for the public.
Amtrak 's California Zephyr , a daily passenger service from Emeryville, California in the San Francisco Bay Area to Chicago , uses the first transcontinental railroad from Sacramento to central Nevada. Because this rail line currently operates in a directional running setup across most of Nevada, the California Zephyr will switch to the Central Corridor at either Winnemucca or Wells.
While not exactly accurate, John Ford's silent movie The Iron Horse captures the fervent nationalism that drove public support for the project. Among the cooks serving the film's cast and crew between shots were some of the Chinese laborers who worked on the Central Pacific section of the railroad.
The movie is said to have inspired the Union Pacific Western television series starring Jeff Morrow , Judson Pratt and Susan Cummings which aired in syndication from until The film How the West Was Won has a whole segment devoted to the construction; one of the movie's most famous scenes, filmed in Cinerama , is of a buffalo stampede over the railroad. The construction of what presumably is — or is suggested to be — the transcontinental railroad provides the backdrop of the epic Spaghetti Western Once Upon a Time in the West , directed by Italian director Sergio Leone.
Kristiana Gregory 's book The Great Railroad Race part of the "Dear America" series is written as the fictional diary of Libby West, who chronicles the end of the railroad construction and the excitement that engulfed the country at the time. In the Will Smith film Wild Wild West , the joining ceremony is the setting of an assassination attempt on then U. President Ulysses S. Grant by the film's antagonist Dr. Arliss Loveless. The main character in The Claim is a surveyor for the Central Pacific Railroad , and the film is partially about the efforts of a frontier mayor to have the railroad routed through his town.
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- Nevis 390 feeder free
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