The Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository is a deep geological repository for the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel, the first such repository in the world. It is currently under construction at the Olkiluoto plant by the company Posiva, owned by the nuclear power plant operators Fortum and TVO.. Agriculture. The waste heat, an output common to all thermal power plants, which heats . Elephants Dream (code-named Project Orange during production and originally titled Machina) is a Dutch computer animated science fiction fantasy experimental short film produced by Blender Foundation using, almost exclusively, free and open-source replace.me film is English-language and includes subtitles in over 30 languages. The liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR; often pronounced lifter) is a type of molten salt replace.me use the thorium fuel cycle with a fluoride-based, molten, liquid salt for replace.me a typical design, the liquid is pumped between a critical core and an external heat exchanger where the heat is transferred to a nonradioactive secondary salt. The secondary salt then transfers its .
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The name refers to its design where, instead of a large steel pressure vessel surrounding the entire core, the core is surrounded by a cylindrical annular steel tank inside a concrete vault and each fuel assembly rreaktor enclosed in an individual 8 cm inner diameter pipe called a "technological channel".
The channels also contain the coolant, and are surrounded by graphite. Certain aspects of the original RBMK reactor design, such as the large positive void coefficientthe 'positive scram effect' of the control rods [3] and instability reaktor 6 full free low power levels, contributed to the Chernobyl disasterin which an RBMK experienced an uncontrolled nuclear chain reactionleading to a steam and hydrogen explosion, large fire, and subsequent core meltdown.
Radioactivity was released over a large portion of Europe. The disaster prompted worldwide calls for the reactors to be completely decommissioned; however, there is still considerable reliance on RBMK facilities for power in Russia.
Most of the flaws in the design of RBMK reactors were corrected after the Chernobyl accident and a dozen reactors have since been operating without any serious incidents for over thirty years. The RBMK was the culmination of the Soviet nuclear power program to produce a water-cooled power reactor with dual-use potential based on their graphite-moderated plutonium production military reactors. By using a minimalist reaktor 6 full free that used regular light water for cooling and graphite for moderationit was possible to use fuel with a lower enrichment 1.
This allowed for fulk extraordinarily large and powerful reactor that could be built rapidly, largely out of parts fabricated on-site instead of by specialized factories. The initial MWe design also left room for development into yet more powerful reactors. For comparison, the EPR has fref net electric nameplate capacity of MW Reaktor 6 full free thermal and is among the most powerful reactor types ful, built.
The RBMK's design was finalized in At that time it was the world's largest nuclear reaktot design, surpassing western designs and the VVER an earlier Soviet PWR reactor design in power output and physical size, being 20 times larger by volume than contemporary western reactors. Reaktor 6 full free to CANDU reactors ful could be produced without the specialized industry required by the large and thick-walled reactor pressure vessels such as those used by VVER reactors, thus increasing the number of factories capable of manufacturing RBMK reactor components.
No prototypes of the RBMK were built; it was put directly into mass production. The RBMK was proclaimed by some as the national reactor of the Soviet Union, probably due to nationalism because of its unique design, large size and reaktor 6 full free output and especially since the VVER was called the American reactor by its detractors in gull Soviet Union, since fres design is more similar to that of western PWR reactors.
A top-secret invention patent for the RBMK design was filed by Anatoly Aleksandrov from the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, who personally took credit for the design of the reactor, with the Soviet patent office. Because a containment building would have needed to be very large and thus expensive doubling the cost of each unit due to the large size of the RBMK, it was originally omitted from the design.
It was argued by its designers that the RBMK's strategy of having each fuel assembly in its own channel with flowing cooling water was an reaotor alternative for containment. The RBMK was favored over the VVER by the Soviet Union due to its ease reaktor 6 full free manufacture due to a lack of a large and thick-walled reactor pressure vessel and relatively complex associated steam generators and its large power output which would allow the Soviet government to easily meet their central economic planning targets.
This prompted a sudden overhaul of the RBMK. Plutonium production in an RBMK would ffee been achieved by operating the reactor under special thermal parameters, but this capability was abandoned early on. The redesign did not solve flaws that were not discovered until years later. Reaktor 6 full free unit 1 opened in At Leningrad it was discovered that the RBMK, due to its high positive void coefficient, became harder to control as the uranium fuel was consumed or burned reaktor 6 full free, becoming unpredictable by the time it was shut down after three years for maintenance.
This made controlling the RBMK a very laborious, mentally and physically demanding task requiring the timely adjustment of dozens of parameters every minute, around the clock, constantly wearing out reaktor 6 full free such as those used for the control rods and causing operators to sweat.
The enrichment percentage was thus increased to 2. Aleksandrov and Dollezhal did not investigate further or even deeply understand the problems in the RBMK, and the void coefficient was not analyzed in the manuals for the reactor. Engineers at Chernobyl unit 1 had to create solutions to many of the RBMK's flaws reaktorr as a lack of protection against no feedwater supply. Leningrad and Chernobyl units 1 both had partial meltdowns that were treated alongside other nuclear accidents at power plants as state secrets and so were unknown even to other workers at those same plants.
Instead, manuals were revised, which was reqktor to be enough to ensure safe operation as long as they were followed closely. However, the manuals were vague and Soviet power plant staff already had a habit of bending the rules in order to meet economic targets, despite inadequate or malfunctioning equipment.
Crucially, it was not made clear that a number reaktor 6 full free control rods had to stay in the reactor at all times in order to protect against an accident, as loosely articulated by the Operational Reactivity Margin ORM parameter.
A year lifetime is envisaged reaktor 6 full free many reaktor 6 full free the units, after mid-life refurbishment. The reactor pit or vault is made of reinforced concrete and has dimensions It houses the vessel of the reactor, which is annular, made of an inner and outer cylindrical reaktor 6 full free and top and bottom metal plates that cover the space between the inner and outer walls, without covering the space surrounded by the vessel.
The reactor vessel is an annular steel cylinder with hollow walls and pressurized with nitrogen gas, with an inner diameter and height of In order to absorb axial thermal expansion loads, it is equipped with two bellows compensatorsraktor on the top and another on the bottom, in the spaces between the inner and outer walls. The vessel surrounds the graphite core block stack, which serves as moderator.
The graphite stack is kept in a helium-nitrogen mixture for providing an inert atmosphere for the graphite, preventing it from potential fires and for excess heat transfer from the graphite fulp the coolant channels.
There are holes of The reactor has an active core region There are tons of graphite blocks in an Reaktor 6 full free reactor. The reactor vessel has on its outer side an integral cylindrical annular water tank, [12] a welded structure with 3cm thick walls, an inner diameter of The water is supplied to the compartments from the bottom and reaktor 6 full free from the top; the water can be used for emergency reactor cooling.
The tank contains thermocouples for sensing the water temperature and ion chambers for monitoring the reactor power. The UBS is a cylindrical disc of 3m reaktor 6 full free 17m in size and tons in weight. The top and bottom are covered with 4cm thick steel plates, welded to be helium-tight, and additionally joined by reaktor 6 full free supports. 66 space between the plates and pipes is filled with reaktor 6 full free[8] a rock fukl significant amounts of bound water.
The serpentinite provides the radiation shielding of the biological shield and was applied as a special concrete mixture. The disk is supported on 16 rollers, located on the upper side of the reinforced cylindrical water tank. The structure of the UBS supports the fuel and control channels, the floor above the reactor in the central hall, and the steam-water pipes.
It is penetrated by the tubes for the lower ends of the pressure channels and carries the weight of the graphite stack and the coolant inlet piping.
A steel structure, two heavy plates intersecting in right angle under the center of the LBS and welded to the LBS, supports the LBS and transfers the mechanical load to the building. Above that is Assembly 11, made up of the upper shield cover or channel covers. Their top surfaces form part of the floor of the reactor hall and serve as part of the biological shield and for thermal insulation of fref reactor space.
They consist of serpentinite concrete blocks that cover individual removable steel-graphite plugs, located over the tops of the channels, forming what resembles a circle with a grid pattern. The fuel channels consist of welded zircaloy pressure tubes 8cm in inner diameter with 4mm thick walls, led through the channels in the center of the graphite moderator blocks.
The top and bottom parts of the tubes are made of stainless steeland joined with the central zircaloy reaktor 6 full free with zirconium-steel alloy couplings. The pressure tube is held in the graphite stack reaktor 6 full free with two alternating types of 20mm high split graphite rings; one is in direct contact with the tube and has 1. The pressure tubes are welded to the top and bottom plates of the reactor vessel.
While most of the heat energy from the fission process is generated in the fuel rods, approximately reaotor. This energy must be removed to avoid overheating the graphite. The rest of the graphite heat is removed from the control rod channels by forced gas circulation through the gas circuit. There are fuel channels and control rod channels in the first generation RBMK reactor cores. The seal plug has a simple design, to facilitate its removal and installation by the remotely controlled online refueling machine.
The fuel channels may, instead of fuel, contain fixed neutron absorbers, or be filled completely with cooling water. They may also contain silicon-filled tubes in place of a fuel assembly, for the purpose of doping for semiconductors. These channels could be identified by their corresponding servo readers, which would be blocked and replaced with the atomic symbol for silicon.
The small clearance between the pressure channel and the graphite block makes the graphite core susceptible to damage. If a pressure channel deforms, e. The fuel pellets are made of uranium dioxide powder, sintered with a suitable binder into pellets The material may contain added europium oxide as a burnable nuclear poison to lower the reactivity differences between a new and partially spent fuel assembly.
A 2mm hole through the axis of the pellet reakfor to reduce the temperature in the center of the pellet and facilitates removal of gaseous fission products.
The rods are filled with helium at 0. Retaining rings help to seat the pellets in the center of the tube and facilitate heat transfer from the pellet to the tube. The pellets are axially held in place by a spring.
Each rod contains 3. The fuel rods are 3. The fuel assemblies consist of two sets "sub-assemblies" with 18 fuel rods and 1 carrier rod. The fuel rods are arranged along the central carrier rod, which has an outer diameter of 1. All rods of a fuel assembly are held in place with 10 stainless steel spacers separated by mm rfee. The two sub-assemblies are joined with a cylinder at the center of the assembly; during the operation of the reactor, this dead space without fuel lowers the neutron flux in the central plane of the reactor.
The total mass of uranium in the fuel assembly is The total length of the fuel assembly is In addition to the regular fuel assemblies, there are instrumented ones, containing neutron flux detectors reaktor 6 full free the central carrier.
In this case, the rod is replaced with a tube with wall thickness of 2. The refueling machine is mounted on a gantry crane and remotely controlled. The fuel assemblies can be replaced without shutting down the reactor, a factor significant for production of weapon-grade plutonium and, in a reaktor 6 full free context, for better reactor uptime. When a fuel assembly has to be replaced, the machine is reaktor 6 full free above reaktor 6 full free fuel channel: then it mates to the latter, equalizes pressure within, pulls the rod, and inserts a fresh one.
The spent rod is then placed in a cooling pond. The capacity of the refueling machine with the reactor at nominal power level is two fuel assemblies per day, with peak capacity of five per day. The total amount of fuel under stationary conditions is tons. Most of the reactor control rods are inserted from above; 24 shortened rods are inserted from below and are used to augment the axial power distribution control of the core.
With the exception of 12 automatic rods, the control rods have a 4. The role of the graphite section, known as "displacer", is to enhance the difference between the neutron flux attenuation levels of inserted and retracted rods, as the graphite displaces water that would otherwise act as a neutron absorber, although much weaker than boron carbide; a control rod channel filled with graphite absorbs fewer neutrons than when fulk with water, so the difference between inserted and retracted control rod is increased.
When the control rod is fully retracted, the graphite displacer is located in the middle of the core height, with 1. The displacement of water in the lower rexktor. This "positive scram" effect was fupl in at the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant.
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