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Fuming couple taking neighbours to court over rooster who crows times a day. Physical activity can also decrease depressive symptoms due to the release of neurotrophic proteins in the brain that can help to rebuild the hippocampus that may be reduced due to depression. Reminiscence of old and fond memories is another alternative form of treatment, especially for the elderly who have lived longer and have more experiences in life. It is a method that causes a person to recollect memories of their own life, leading to a process of self-recognition and identifying familiar stimuli.
By maintaining one's personal past and identity, it is a technique that stimulates people to view their lives in a more objective and balanced way, causing them to pay attention to positive information in their life stories, which would successfully reduce depressive mood levels.
Self-help books are a growing form of treatment for peoples physiological distress. There may be a possible connection between consumers of unguided self-help books and higher levels of stress and depressive symptoms.
Researchers took many factors into consideration to find a difference in consumers and nonconsumers of self-help books. Then they broke the consumers into 11 who preferred problem-focused and 7 preferred growth-oriented. Those groups were tested for many things including cortisol levels, depressive symptomatology, and stress reactivity levels. There were no large differences between consumers of self-help books and nonconsumers when it comes to diurnal cortisol level, there was a large difference in depressive symptomatology with consumers having a higher mean score.
The growth-oriented group has higher stress reactivity levels than the problem-focused group. However, the problem-focused group shows higher depressive symptomatology. There is limited evidence that continuing antidepressant medication for one year reduces the risk of depression recurrence with no additional harm.
There are empirical evidences of a connection between the type of stress management techniques and the level of daily depressive mood. Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, the United Nations UN health agency reported, estimating that it affects more than million people worldwide — the majority of them women, young people and the elderly.
An estimated 4. Depression is a major mental-health cause of disease burden. Its consequences further lead to significant burden in public health , including a higher risk of dementia , premature mortality arising from physical disorders, and maternal depression impacts on child growth and development. The stigma comes from misguided societal views that people with mental illness are different from everyone else, and they can choose to get better only if they wanted to.
The stigma leads to a strong preference for privacy. Trials conducted show possibilities for the implementation of the programme in low-resource primary-care settings dependent on primary-care practitioners and lay health-workers. The mhGAP adopted its approach of improving detection rates of depression by training general practitioners. However, there is still weak evidence supporting this training.
The term depression was derived from the Latin verb deprimere , "to press down". It was used in in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in In Ancient Greece, disease was thought due to an imbalance in the four basic bodily fluids, or humors.
Personality types were similarly thought to be determined by the dominant humor in a particular person. During the 18th century, the humoral theory of melancholia was increasingly being challenged by mechanical and electrical explanations; references to dark and gloomy states gave way to ideas of slowed circulation and depleted energy. In the 20th century, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin distinguished manic depression. The influential system put forward by Kraepelin unified nearly all types of mood disorder into manic—depressive insanity.
Kraepelin worked from an assumption of underlying brain pathology, but also promoted a distinction between endogenous internally caused and exogenous externally caused types. This mental health condition causes people to have mood swings, such as emotional highs and lows.
Manic depression and bipolar disorder are considered the same thing because of these mood swings. Other psycho-dynamic theories were proposed. Existential and humanistic theories represented a forceful affirmation of individualism.
Researchers theorized that depression was caused by a chemical imbalance in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the s of the effects of reserpine and isoniazid in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms. The terms unipolar and bipolar had been coined by German psychiatrist Karl Kleist.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. State of low mood and aversion to activity. Not to be confused with Major depressive disorder. For the album by Anohni, see Hopelessness album. For other uses, see Despair disambiguation. For other uses, see Depression disambiguation. Medical condition. Main article: Depression differential diagnoses. Main article: Depressive mood disorders. Main article: Dispossession, oppression and depression. Main article: Management of depression. Main article: Epidemiology of depression.
Main article: History of depression. Existential crisis Feeling Melancholia Diathesis—stress model Biopsychosocial model Attribution psychology Locus of control. Rational choice theory does not claim to describe the choice process, but rather it helps predict the outcome and pattern of choice. It is consequently assumed that the individual is self-interested or being homo economicus. Here, the individual comes to a decision that maximizes personal advantage by balancing costs and benefits.
Without explicitly dictating the goal or preferences of the individual, it may be impossible to empirically test or invalidate the rationality assumption.
However, the predictions made by a specific version of the theory are testable. In recent years, the most prevalent version of rational choice theory, expected utility theory , has been challenged by the experimental results of behavioral economics. Economists are learning from other fields, such as psychology , and are enriching their theories of choice in order to get a more accurate view of human decision-making.
For example, the behavioral economist and experimental psychologist Daniel Kahneman won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in for his work in this field.
Rational choice theory has proposed that there are two outcomes of two choices regarding human action. Firstly, the feasible region will be chosen within all the possible and related action. Second, after the preferred option has been chosen, the feasible region that has been selected was picked based on restriction of financial, legal, social, physical or emotional restrictions that the agent is facing.
After that, a choice will be made based on the preference order. The concept of rationality used in rational choice theory is different from the colloquial and most philosophical use of the word. In this sense, "rational" behaviour can refer to "sensible", "predictable", or "in a thoughtful, clear-headed manner. At its most basic level, behavior is rational if it is goal-oriented, reflective evaluative , and consistent across time and different choice situations.
This contrasts with behavior that is random , impulsive , conditioned , or adopted by unevaluative imitation. Early neoclassical economists writing about rational choice, including William Stanley Jevons , assumed that agents make consumption choices so as to maximize their happiness , or utility. Contemporary theory bases rational choice on a set of choice axioms that need to be satisfied, and typically does not specify where the goal preferences, desires comes from.
It mandates just a consistent ranking of the alternatives. Thus, each individual makes a decision based on their own preferences and the constraints or choice set they face. Rational choice theory can be viewed in different contexts. At an individual level, the theory suggests that the agent will decide on the action or outcome they most prefer. If the actions or outcomes are evaluated in terms of costs and benefits, the choice with the maximum net benefit will be chosen by the rational individual.
Rational behaviour is not solely driven by monetary gain, but can also be driven by emotional motives. The theory can be applied to general settings outside of those identified by costs and benefits. In general, rational decision making entails choosing among all available alternatives the alternative that the individual most prefers.
The "alternatives" can be a set of actions "what to do? In the case of actions, what the individual really cares about are the outcomes that results from each possible action. Actions, in this case, are only an instrument for obtaining a particular outcome. The available alternatives are often expressed as a set of objects, for example a set of j exhaustive and exclusive actions:. For example, if a person can choose to vote for either Roger or Sara or to abstain, their set of possible alternatives is:.
Together these two assumptions imply that given a set of exhaustive and exclusive actions to choose from, an individual can rank the elements of this set in terms of his preferences in an internally consistent way the ranking constitutes a total ordering , minus some assumptions , and the set has at least one maximal element. Research that took off in the s sought to develop models that drop these assumptions and argue that such behaviour could still be rational, Anand This work, often conducted by economic theorists and analytical philosophers, suggests ultimately that the assumptions or axioms above are not completely general and might at best be regarded as approximations.
Alternative theories of human action include such components as Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman 's prospect theory , which reflects the empirical finding that, contrary to standard preferences assumed under neoclassical economics, individuals attach extra value to items that they already own compared to similar items owned by others.
Under standard preferences, the amount that an individual is willing to pay for an item such as a drinking mug is assumed to equal the amount they are willing to be paid in order to part with it.
In experiments, the latter price is sometimes significantly higher than the former but see Plott and Zeiler , [11] Plott and Zeiler [12] and Klass and Zeiler, [13]. Tversky and Kahneman [14] do not characterize loss aversion as irrational. Behavioral economics includes a large number of other amendments to its picture of human behavior that go against neoclassical assumptions. Often preferences are described by their utility function or payoff function. This is an ordinal number that an individual assigns over the available actions, such as:.
The individual's preferences are then expressed as the relation between these ordinal assignments. For example, if an individual prefers the candidate Sara over Roger over abstaining, their preferences would have the relation:. A preference relation that as above satisfies completeness, transitivity, and, in addition, continuity , can be equivalently represented by a utility function. The rational choice approach allows preferences to be represented as real-valued utility functions.
Economic decision making then becomes a problem of maximizing this utility function , subject to constraints e. This has many advantages. It provides a compact theory that makes empirical predictions with a relatively sparse model - just a description of the agent's objectives and constraints. Furthermore, optimization theory is a well-developed field of mathematics. These two factors make rational choice models tractable compared to other approaches to choice. Most importantly, this approach is strikingly general.
It has been used to analyze not only personal and household choices about traditional economic matters like consumption and savings, but also choices about education, marriage, child-bearing, migration, crime and so on, as well as business decisions about output, investment, hiring, entry, exit, etc. In the field of political science rational choice theory has been used to help predict human decision making and model for the future; therefore it is useful in creating effective public policy, and enables the government to develop solutions quickly and efficiently.
Despite the empirical shortcomings of rational choice theory, the flexibility and tractability of rational choice models and the lack of equally powerful alternatives lead to them still being widely used. Rational choice theory has become increasingly employed in social sciences other than economics , such as sociology , evolutionary theory and political science in recent decades. The relationship between the rational choice theory and politics takes many forms, whether that be in voter behaviour, the actions of world leaders or even the way that important matters are dealt with.
Voter behaviour shifts significantly thanks to rational theory, which is ingrained in human nature, the most significant of which occurs when there are times of economic trouble.
In a more complex fashion, voters will react often radically in times of real economic strife, which can lead to an increase in extremism. The government will be made responsible by the voters and thus they see a need to make a change. Some of the most infamous extremist parties came to power on the back of economic recessions, the most significant being the far right Nazi Party in Germany, who used the hyperinflation at the time to gain power rapidly, as they promised a solution and a scapegoat for the blame.
This is becoming more and more prevalent with every election as each party tries to appeal to a broader range of voters. This is especially prevalent as there has been a decline in party memberships, meaning that each party has much less guaranteed votes. Overall the electorate are becoming more inclined to vote based on recency factors in order to protect their interests and maximise their utility.
Meaning Rational Choice Theory has the ability to be used in modelling and forecasting, owing to its nature being derived from economic thought to explain human behaviour. This is useful in politics as the theory can quantify human decision making and behaviour into data that can be interpreted, helping to predict behaviours and outcomes. Therefore enabling the ability to direct and shape political thinking and campaigns, maximizing utility. As useful as the use of empirical data is in building a clear picture of voting behaviour it doesn't full show all aspects of political decision making whether that be from the electorate or the policy makers.
As [26] brings the idea of commitment as a key concept to the behaviour of political agents. That it is not only self interest that is the outcome of personal cost benefit analysis but it is also the idea of shared interests. That the key idea of utility needs to be defined not only as material utility but also as experienced utility, these expansions to classical rational choice theory could then begin to remove the weakness in regards to morals of the agents which it aims to interoperate their actions.
A downfall of rational choice theory in a political sense, is that is the pursuit of individual goals can lead to collectively irrational outcomes. This problem of collective action can disincentivise people to vote. Even though a group of people may have common interests, they also have conflicting ones that cause misalignment within the group and therefore an outcome that does not benefit the group as a whole as people want to pursue their own individual interests.
This problem is rooted in Rational Choice theory because of the theories emphasis on the rational agents performing their own cost-benefit analysis to maximize their self-interests. This means the benefit of the economic growth outweighs the cost of pollution, according to the theory of Rational Choice.
Making the outcome of a rational choice, a collectively irrational outcome. Rational choice theory has become one of the major approaches in the study of international relations. The research goal is to improve understanding of the immunopathology of TB and HIV, using this information to aid in developing novel therapeutic approaches and diagnostic biomarkers. His research has centered on understanding the mechanisms by which the human immune system recognises the Mycobacterium tuberculosis M.
His work has a strong translational component, asking if both classically and non-classically restricted T cells are associated with infection with M. The translational significance of this research is centred on informing the development of novel vaccines and diagnostics for childhood TB. Her current research focuses on HIV broadly neutralising antibodies and their interplay with the evolving virus.
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